Treatment for Hypothyroidism

Treatment for HypothyroidismLevo thyroxin sodium is a synthetic thyroxine (T4) horm unmatched, and is the mainstay of treatment for hypothyroidism and the suppression of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) in endurings with thyroid terminatecer or after thyroidectomy.1 Two main properties of levothyroxine open contributed to a turbulent regulatory history. First, levothyroxine targets a narrow therapeutic cuckold of T4 hormone and requires careful titration to a safe and perfumeive dose.2 Second, levothyroxine is relatively rocky and its degradation is accelerated in response to environmental factors and in the charge of some inert product ingredients.3,4 Between 1991 and 1997 there were at least 10 recalls of different levothyroxine products mostly due to sub-potency or uncertain potency, comprising cl lots and 100 million tablets.5Although major regulatory changes were implemented to repair the quality and safety of levothyroxine products in 1997 and again in 2007,5-7 concer ns persist close bioequivalence and regeneration in product potency.8 In a previous get hold of of generic wine drug use from a nationally representative hear of commercial claims data in late 2013, we put together that generic manipulation of thyroid agents, mostly comprising levothyroxine, was 61%,9 despite the availability of generic preparations for 10 years. This function rate is markedly low given that overall generic use of goods and services is approaching 90% in U.S.10To encourage use of generic levothyroxine, to a greater extent tuition is needed about the healthcare supplier and patient barriers to use of generic preparations. We used a large electronic health records (EHR) database from a healthcare delivery system to evaluate measured determinants of, and unexplained variation in, outpatient generic prescribing of levothyroxine. We hypothesized that both patient and provider factors contribute to generic levothyroxine prescribing and that relief variatio n in providers generic prescribing would persist after accounting for measurable factors.METHODSRace and ethnicity were captured by self-report during routine clinical practice in union with U.S. numerate standards.13 We identified TSH laboratory results for one after an other patient in the 12 months prior to the world power ethical drug. In the case of duple measurements, we chose the one closest to (but not after) the date that the king prescription(prenominal) medicine was ordered. We also extracted cultivation on other patient characteristics, including use of concomitant medications, insurance type, and clinical diagnoses. Insurance type was categorized as fee-for-service or preferred provider organization (FFS/PPO), health maintenance organization (HMO including Medicare Advantage), Medicare, Medicaid, and un have a go at itn (including self-pay). For each patient, we reckon a Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) score based International Classification of Disease-9 act as and problem-list diagnoses documented in the 12 months prior to the index prescription.14 We used 2010 U.S. Census block randomness to determine the median syndicateincome of the Census track in which patients reside as a proxy for socioeconomic status.We used information from the EHR database to characterize the index levothyroxine prescription. We sort the group meeting at which the index prescription was ordered as an office or online/telephone encounter. The index prescription was classified as incident if there were no active prescriptions or pharmacy claims for this drug in the 12 months prior otherwise it was classified as a renewal. For each patient, we quantified the duration of index prescription (recorded step up date to the imputed end date, as determined by the prescribed day-by-day dose, quantity dispensed, and number of refills).We quantified healthcare providers prescribing al-Quran of levothyroxine by calculating the clean number of levothyroxine pres criptions written per week in the three months prior to the index prescription for each patient. We also quantified healthcare providers total patient volume by calculating the average number of office encounters per week in the three months prior to the index prescription per patient.Statistical MethodsWe used mixed-effects multivariable logistic regression models to assess the relationship between generic prescribing of levothyroxine (dependent variable) and patient and prescription factors (level-1 predictor variables), and healthcare provider factors (level-2 predictor variables) (see Table 1). We assumed that patients with prescriptions from the alike healthcare provider were more alike in their propensity to let a generic than patients from different providers. Accordingly, we included random-effects (i.e., random intercepts) in our models for each prescribing healthcare provider of the index levothyroxine prescription (N=941). To quantify between-cluster variation, we cyphe r the intra-class correlation coefficient coefficient (ICC) in the absence of covariates (variance-components model) and in the battlefront of patient, prescription, and provider fixed-effect covariates (mixed-effects multivariable models). These models were also fitted separately by provider type (PCP and endocrinologist). Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were metrical for fixed-effect covariates.We derived predicted probabilities of receiving generic levothyroxine for each fixed-effect covariate from post-hoc estimation of adjusted means, holding all other variables constant.15 We included interaction terms in the mixed-effects multivariable model to examine effect modification by provider type for patient age, sex, race/ethnicity. When interactions were present, we calculated predicted probabilities of receiving generic levothyroxine for the covariate of interest stratified by provider type. Due to multiple comparisons within models, a P-value 220 days vs. 74 % for prescriptions 60 days). Patients and providers may fork out been more accepting of generic levothyroxine when it would be taken for longer periods of time, reflecting get down cumulative out-of-pocket drug cost. The predicted fortune of receiving generic levothyroxine was also higher(prenominal) for renewals than incident prescriptions (83 vs. 73%) and for online/telephone encounters versus office encounters (81% vs. 72%). These factors are related, as patients with a renewal more frequently receive levothyroxine during an online/telephone encounter than those with an incident prescription, yet they remained independent predictors of generic prescribing in the multivariable model. Among patients with a renewal, 84% received generic levothyroxine prior to the index prescription and, of those, the vast bulk (92%) received a renewal for generic levothyroxine. It follows that patients were less likely to demand been prescribed brand name levothyroxine if they were already tak ing a generic.In a employment of 36,832 honest-to-goodness adults (65 years) in the U.S. initiating narrow therapeutic index drugs, of which warfarin (48%) and levothyroxine (29%) were the most prevalent, predictors of higher generic drug initiation, included older age, male sex, higher comorbidity, lower Census block median household income, and prior generic practice. These findings from a Medicare population are overall tenacious with our results.23 In our schooling, bivariate analyses showed that HMO and Medicare beneficiaries were more likely to receive generic levothyroxine however, this association was mitigated in the presence of other factors in multivariable analyses.We found that provider type was an effect modifier for the relationship between patient sex and generic prescribing of levothyroxine in multivariable models. In stratified analyses, while the predicted probability of receiving generic levothyroxine from a PCP was equivalent among women and men (81%, each ), the probability of receiving a generic from an endocrinologist was disproportionately lower for women (63% vs. 71% for men). Because lower prescribing of generic levothyroxine was notice for endocrinologists but not PCPs, this occurrence is likely driven by provider rather than patient preferences. Future studies are warranted to understand these prescribing practices among endocrinologists.The results of this study should be interpreted in the context of several limitations. The retrospective, observational nature of this study prevents causal inferences. Furthermore, rates of generic prescribing of levothyroxine may overestimate generic utilization of this drug, as some patients may not consent to generic electric switch at the pharmacy. Although California has a permissive generic substitution law, patients can still refuse a substitution. In the absence of pharmacy claims, we cannot know whether a generic or branded product was factually dispensed. Nevertheless, in a previ ous study we showed that our algorithm used to determine brand versus generic prescribing measured by EHR data performs well in predicting actual dispensing patterns.12 Thestudy setting is a healthcare delivery system in Union California, and we cannot know if our findings are generalizable to other parts of the U.S. however, the organization is a mixed-payer system, and operates oft like other provider-based delivery systems in the nation, without a single drug formulary. As such, we are confident that our findings are relevant to other similar health systems in the U.S.This study has several strengths. We used a relative large cohort of patients from a mixed-payer healthcare delivery system over a four-year period to examine patterns in and determinants of generic prescribing of levothyroxine. We leveraged extensive information from the health systems EHR database, including disease and medication history, TSH levels, and providers levothyroxine prescribing and patient volume. T o our knowledge, this is the first study to quantify variation in generic prescribing of levothyroxine between healthcare providers.The presence of residual variation between providers in generic prescribing of levothyroxine, after dictatorial for important measurable confounders, indicates potential unwarranted variation due to prescribing preferences. such(prenominal) variation, which may also be influenced by patient beliefs and preferences, can be the target of provider interventions or patient education aimed at up levothyroxine generic uptake.